Reviewing The Usefulness Of Official Statistics Criminology Essay

Reviewing The Usefulness Of Official Statistics Criminology Essay Official statistics give information on the number of crimes commit that are collected directly from each police. They claim to provide answers to two questions; the extent of crime, and who commits it. Criminologists have identified the problem of official statistics giving a false picture of the level and type of crime that actually exists. As a result, other types of information are turned to including victim surveys, longitudinal research and self-report studies. This essay will begin by exploring the uses of official statistics then go on to explore the problems with the data. The other types of data available will then be outlined and the usefulness of them will be evaluated. Offical statistics are figures that have been collected by the police and are published by the Home Office annually and contain data on crimes known to by the police. Official statistics have the use of showing trends in crime that can easily be compared over time. For example, the Office for National Statistics (2008) published a report saying In England and Wales, 4,060 Anti-social Behaviour Orders (ASBOs) were issued in 2005, over 18 per cent more than the previous year. They also clearly show which social group is more likely to commit certain types of crime. This could be the persons age, ethnicity, social class. They allow police to know where their priorities should be and aid governments in setting their policies on crime. To a criminologists point of view, they are a free, secondary source of data that are going to be useful even if it is just to identify how much of a dark-figure there is. The term Dark-figure is ultimately the entire problem with using official statistics to study crime. The dark figure is defined as the amount of crime which is unreported or unknown about. The total amount of crime is made up of those that are known of and recorded, and the dark figure of crime (Online Dictionary Of The Social Sciences 2008). The dark figure is said to exist due to the social construction of crime. This is the idea that what is seen as criminal behaviour to one person may not be to another. The result there are crimes that the public to do not report to the police, and there are crimes that the police to not record. These make up a large number of crimes that are not recorded by the police, and make up the dark figure. Unreported crimes occur for a range of reasons, and are a massive contributor to the dark figure, which removes usefulness from official statistics. The police rely on the public to inform them about crime, they do not generally find out about crimes themselves. As Maguire et. Al (2002:322) said; whether people perceive a particular action or event as crime, let alone whether they report it as such to anyone elseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦can vary according to their own knowledge, awareness, or feelings about crime, which in turn may be influenced by the general public mood or the preoccupations of politicians and the media. Crimes will only generally go reported where there is a victim, therefore there is a large number of victimless crimes which the police are not getting told about. Typical crimes of this nature included traffic offences and violations of laws regarding public decency such as public drunkenness. These crimes will all contribute to the dark figure. Crimes may not be reported t o the police if it is not perceived to be serious. The victim may regard the offence as trivial and believe that reporting it to the police is more effort than it is worth. A major source of unreported crime comes from white-collar crimes. Edwin Sutherland came up with the concept in 1945 which, at the time, was a very different idea of crime from anything before (Coleman and Moyniham 1996:9). Sutherland (1940 cited in Coleman and Moyniham 1996:9) defined the concept as crimes committed by persons of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupations. Crimes of this nature could include bribery and corruption in business and politics, the breaking of trade regulations and breaking food and drug laws. Some crimes may be committed by organizations or corporations themselves, rather than an individual, and are often known as corporate crimes. Sutherland (1940 cited in Coleman and Moyniham 1996:9) explains how these types of crimes are very widespread, yet a measure of them doesnt appear in police records. Prosecutions are unlikely due to the apparent trivial nature of the crime, and often it is difficult to get sufficient evidence. Ge nerally, other procedures are used to deal with these criminals, such as civil actions or those of special agencies. Firms are unlikely to prosecute employees over internal crime to the company such as stealing property, as they believe the result will be their company looking bad. He goes on to explain that white-collar criminals are the most damaging of all due to the results. These crimes will therefore make up a large proportion of all crimes committed, yet the majority of them are not included in official statistics, so contributing to making them useful to study. Another major contributor to official statistics not giving a true picture on crime is crimes that go unrecorded by the police. Simmons and Dodd (2003) point out that the police have a legal obligation to record all crime, however over 30% of all crimes reported to the police in 2002/3 were not recorded. Cases where crimes arent recorded include cases where the crime is seen by the police as being trivial and the offence minor. The police may see that the time taken to fill in the paper work on a minor crime or one where catching the victim is unlikely is simply a waste of time. A process known as cuffing is where police downgrade crimes in order to meet Home Office efficiency targets. They may even make a crime disappear all together so it does not show up in statistics, for example theft can be downgraded to lost property, which is not a crime. This may be done in cases where police pay is partially determined by clean-up rates, so it is in their interest to have a low number of cr imes recorded. An example of this is in a recent news article where Alan Travis (2008) said, the Home Office disclosed that up to 17 police forces have been under-recording some types of the most serious violent crime. There is further dispute in the usefulness of official statistics from the problem that certain crimes appear more frequently than others. A key cause of this is media amplification. This is where certain crimes are concentrated on by the media and made out to be big problems (often when they are not), known as moral panics. The result is that the police will concentrate more of their time in areas where these people are. This could mean that the tendency of the police to concentrate in low income areas may mean higher arrests of the working class, which may distort the figures. It could also be argued that police resources are devoted to patrolling public places, which is where most young males spend their social life, so leading to higher arrest rates amongst them and distortion to the statistics. As a response to the problems of the data in official statistics, a number of alternative ways are also used to study crime. The most popular alternative if the British Crime Survey, which is a victimization study. The British Crime Survey was first conducted in 1981 and has become an annual event since 2000. The Home Office carries out the victim study so they dont have to simply rely on using police statistics to study crime, and see it as being more reliable than police statistics for certain types of crime. The survey itself involves asking a sample of 47,000 adults if they have been the victim of crime in the previous year. It also asks individuals if they reported the crime, and whether the police ultimately recorded it. Data from the British Crime Survey may reveal that there are either more or less offences in particular categories, implying that an offence is being either under reported or that it is being reported accurately. All in all then, the BCS data seems to indicate that official statistics on crime do not provide a valid picture of the extent of crime, and overall they may underestimate the trend.  However, we cannot say that the British Crime Survey is giving a true picture, as there are also many limitations with the survey. Maguire (2002) explains how there are categories of crime that are not included in the British Crime Survey that are included in police statistics. This could include cases where there is a commercial or corporate victim (such as shop-lifting), or if it is a victimless crime. He also noted that sexual offences have been reported so rarely that it is not possible to put forward reliable statistics. Another major flaw with the survey is that it excludes offences against victims under sixteen years old. He goes on to explain that national surveys are therefore much less useful at obtaining information about certain incidents of crime than others. He makes it clear that the BCS, therefore, it cannot be too heavily stressed , provides an alternative, rather than a directly comparable, overall picture of crime to that offered by police statistics: it is fuller than the latter in some respects, but narrower in others. (Maguire 2002). Another form of information on crime is Self-report studies. These are where questionnaires or interviews are conducted in confidence to collect information about individuals, and ask them to admit to the number of crimes they have committed, including those which they were not caught. The data can then be compared with official conviction rates to determine which offences are most likely to be committed. Maguire (2002) concluded that: On the one hand, these suggest that crime is committed by a much larger proportion of the population than is officially held responsible for it. On the other hand, survey respondents who have previously been in trouble with the law tend to admit to more serious and more frequent offending behaviour than people who have never been convicted The studies are useful as people generally do not fear getting in trouble for admitting to the offences, so a more valid picture of the number and extent of crime is given. Self-report studies do however come with fundamental problems. Unreliable answers are believed to be obtained as; respondents may exaggerate when answering questions, respondents may be embarrassed so either not admit to a crime or give an unreliable account of it, respondents may have forgotten the full details of a crime they committed. The majority of self-reported studies survey are conducted on samples of school and college students, and are rarely used on adults. This therefore doesnt make them a good technique in studying the general level of crime in society. The surveys are also likely to undercover minor and trivial crimes, but not find out about the major and less common more serious crimes. For this reason, the self-report study cannot be said to be an effective way of investigating crime. Overall, it appears that there is not single method effective in studying crime, and while the official statistics do contain the dark-figure, they do provide a very useful starting point. When used in combination with the British Crime Survey, the inaccuracy from the dark figure becomes less problematic, and a truer picture of crime is given. Neither is an effective source of information on its own, and only give part of the picture.

World Trade Organization Changing Global Economy

Global trading has been a part of the world since the 1940s. As trade between countries began to grow so did the need for some sort of international commerce. In 1948, the International Trade Organization (ITO) was established, but fell through and triggered the creation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). GATT was created through several negotiations, known as rounds. For many years, GATT's policies held strong and offered many countries the international support they needed to remain prosperous in global trade. Though, as time went on, certain trade policies established by GATT were being undermined by countries in order for them to continue conducting business. GATT's rules and regulations were becoming obsolete in the rapid changing global economy. â€Å"By the early 1980s the General Agreement was clearly no longer relevant to the realities of world trade as it had been in the 1940s. For a start, world trade had become far more complex and important than 40 years before: the globalization of the world economy was underway, trade in services – not covered by GATT rules – was of major interest to more and more countries, and international investment had expanded† (World Wide Web. http://www. wto. org/wtoabout/facts1. htm). The eighth round (Uruguay Round 1986-1994) was the most recent and thorough of them all. The Uruguay Round had 125 countries participating, it is the largest trade negotiation to ever take place. Though this round was expected to fail from the start, it actually started some of the largest trade reforms since GATT and WWII. This round, lasting some 7 1/2 years, established the World Trade Organization (WTO) and a new set of agreements. The World Trade Organization was enacted on January 1, 1995. There are three main purposes of the WTO stated in the WTO web site. These three main goals are to help trade flow as freely as possible, serve as a forum for trade negotiations, and deal with dispute settlements. How the WTO remains so effective is by setting up universal guidelines for members to follow and enforcing them. One of the most important changes made in WTO, is the addition of the trade rules regarding trade in intellectual property and services, as well as, products. The WTO site is currently discussing many articles. There are a few which strike my interest such as the EC and U. S. banana dispute which we had previously discussed in class, the increase of WTO members to 134, and the intellectual property proposal concerning the US and Japanese idea for a multilateral system and registering geographical locations. There is an article on low income developing countries in the GATT/WTO framework, which is planning on discussing special provisions that should be offered to these under-developed and developing countries, which were involved in the Uruguay Round Agreements. â€Å"Developing Countries comprise the majority of the membership of the World Trade Organization. On the other hand, the European Communities, the United States, and other industrialized countries enjoy the greatest shares of international trade† (World Wide Web. ttp://www. wto. org/). The Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) is the â€Å"law† of the WTO. It is the body in the WTO that analyzes the trade policies and interprets the rules regarding them. Two of the three sites we were advised to use on this paper were not accessible, so I just improvised and used Internet sites that had similar information on them. One of the articles I found on worker's rights was very informative. It discussed the U. S. Secretary of Labor, Alexis Herman, and the ties of core labor standards. Last June, a declaration was announced in Geneva by the International Trade Organization (ILO). The International Labor Conference, held by ILO members, adopted this declaration with intentions of creating a stronger protection on core rights of workers, and holding each country accountable for this protection. On May 18, President Clinton Made a speech stating that the ILO and WTO need to maintain a working relationship in order to advance the global trading system while protecting the worker's basic rights. This is a big step forward for the ILO and its members as we enter the 21st Century. With the passage of this Declaration, the ILO has underlined and clarified the importance of the fundamental rights of workers in an era of economic globalization† (Statement by Secretary Herman). Some of the current trade disputes discussed in the WTO are the disputes going on about the bananas between the United States and the European Communities. This dispute is actually being talked about this week in the Wall Street Journal. Both sides are frustrated. The U. S. is because they feel the EU has unfairly made loop holes in WTO guidelines, and the EU is upset because they say the U. S. is trying to control too much of their rights as global traders. The U. S. has stated that the EU has been purposly avoiding banana purchases in Latin America, and doing business in areas like Africa, where Europe has many ties. The WTO has the responsibility to work on a plan that will hopefully satisfy both parties to some degree, but the U. S. as strong opinions of implementing 520 million dollars worth of tariffs on EU imports into our country. Another dispute that is taking place is the Korean acoholic beverage tax. This is a matter the WTO is also trying to fix. The U. S. and EC don't agree with the tax that Korea is implementing on their imported alcoholic beverages. Again, the WTO pages website is inactive so I found some information in another forum about certain issue which are being reviewed. One of the hottest items right now seems to be assistance for low-income developing countries. Many changes are taking place for developing countries, and the way they are conducting their international business. For one, they are aborting many of their uses of tariffs on infant companies to try and support growth. Secondly, they are altering their management to make themselves more attractive to foreign investment, which in turn will increase foreign direct investment and help create more supportive trade balances. These developing nations are strongly advised to take part in the WTO, so they can reap the benefits it has to offer. The WTO, with its multilateral trade view, simply allows smaller economic powers to be more fairly involved in world trade without being victimized and taken advantage of by stronger economic powers in the old bilateral style of global trading. In the 21st Century global trading will be more fine-tuned than it is right now. We should see the elimination of tariffs, subsidies, quotas, etc. The world should be working like a large country, with open markets in every nation. Comparative advantage will establish itself, and trade balances will be less drastic. Under-developed and developing countries will become developed. In my View, I think that in the 21st Century, the world will operate as one large entity in the aspects of economic markets. Though, the creation of the WTO brought many great new ideas and helped closer unite the world into one huge market, there are still bugs that need to be worked out, and as time goes on, we will see need for more changes and adjustments. A few of the areas that the WTO needs to rectify and further develop now are areas such as worker's rights, environmentalism, and foreign direct investment.

Life on a Manor - 790 Words

Katie OGara 4/11/11 Global 9 Period 8 Life on a Manor A manor is a self-sufficient area of land owned by one called a lord. On this land, many slave-like people (who werent considered slaves because they were not bought or sold) known as serfs dwell in small huts. Merchants lived on the manor as well and worked in shops as things like a blacksmith, a baker or a craftsmen. The manor consisted of the homes of the serfs and the merchants, a church, the lords castle where he and his servants lived and the farmland the serfs worked on. This way of life became known as feudalism, an exchange between the people and the lord that dealt with protection from invaders for loyalty to the lord. Feudalism came about†¦show more content†¦The people rarely bathed. The manor was often very crowded with people. Diseases spread quickly and were very effective like the Black Plague. People believed that illnesses were caused by bad spirits punishing people for their sins. Life on a manor in the middle ages was unlike any ot her time period in history. Social classes varied, the church was the center of everyones lives, and everyone wanted to be protected from invaders. The decline of manorialism came when towns started to develop after invasions stopped. Living on a manor brought the legend of knights and the start of the Catholic church to todays society. Christianity may not be as popular today if it werent for the people of the middle ages centering their lives aroundShow MoreRelatedLife on a Medieval Manor1031 Words   |  5 PagesAt the height of the Medieval Ages, life existed mainly in two different forms: the Feudal system and the Manorial System. Barbarian attacks created many dangers for the common citizen, generating a need for personal protection of both their lands and their lives. It is true that kings still did exist at this time, but due to the decentralization of the government, the king became a distant and ambiguous figure. 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Bali - Impact of Global Tourism - 653 Words

Tourism has several impacts on many different aspects of Bali’s society. Tourism has impacted on the already existing, social, economic, cultural and environmental processes of the island. For example, as a result of tourism the pace of urbanisation has rapid increased and tourism has sped up the process of economic development. There are large economic consequences on the economy of Bali. One significant impact on Bali is the foreign exchange earnings. Tourism is the fourth-largest income earner for Indonesia at around US 5.5 billion (2003). Tourism is very labour intensive, with the influx of tourists more services are required thus leading to more creation of jobs, even though it increases job opportunities and higher paying jobs,†¦show more content†¦The social and cultural processes are also significantly impacted. Tourism has helped develop and keep up the unique culture of the island, it has helped revive artistic traditions, and has provided an economic justification for preserving them. But tourism has also led to importantly behavioural impacts, for example; nude sunbathing by tourist is widely disliked by the locals, as well as that lack of respect is shown by tourists in scared places such as temples. Another negative impact is the social development of Bali. There are constant conflicts between local villagers and developers who want the land for hotels and attractions like golf courses. These social impacts have led to a loss in culture and heritage. Another significant impact is the turning of Balinese culture into a commodity. The major influx of tourists has plagued Bali’s culture. Dances, ceremonies and arts and crafts are all now adapted to tourists timetables and tastes, and are mass produced to reduce cost. Also because more people are choosing to work in the tourism industry, this has meant that fewer are available doe traditional ceremonies and communal tasks, placing more pressure on traditional community organisations. As a result of tourism Bali has suffered a lot. In my opinion tourism has plagued Bali and it’s culture. Tourism brings in a lot of money for Indonesia and Bali, but as a result of it the beautiful island is beingShow MoreRelatedRecycling and Its Effects on the Environment Essay1057 Words   |  5 PagesNowadays, recycling has become popular topics because basically it impacts our environment in our life. Recently, the improvement system of recycling can solve human’s life environmental problems. There are three main points of how to manage waste or garbage such as reuse, reduce and recycle. 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